The Tudors and Stuarts

The Tudor and Stuart periods — from 1485 to 1714 — transformed Britain beyond recognition. During these two centuries, England broke with the Roman Catholic Church, fought a civil war, executed a king, and laid the foundations of the constitutional monarchy and parliamentary democracy we know today.

Henry VII (reigned 1485–1509), the first Tudor monarch, established a strong central government after the chaos of the Wars of the Roses. His son, Henry VIII (reigned 1509–1547), is one of the most famous monarchs in British history.

Henry VIII is best known for:

• Wanting to annul (end) his marriage to Catherine of Aragon, who had not produced a male heir
• When Pope Clement VII refused to grant the annulment, Henry broke with the authority of the Pope and the Roman Catholic Church
• In 1534, the Act of Supremacy made Henry the Supreme Head of the Church of England — an independent Protestant church separate from Rome
• The dissolution of the monasteries (1536–1541) — Henry closed monasteries across England, Wales, and Ireland, seizing their wealth and land
• Henry had six wives: Catherine of Aragon, Anne Boleyn, Jane Seymour, Anne of Cleves, Catherine Howard, and Catherine Parr

The break with Rome — known as the English Reformation — had profound and lasting consequences for Britain, reshaping religion, politics, and society.

Henry VIII was succeeded by his three children in turn:

Edward VI (reigned 1547–1553) — Henry's son by Jane Seymour. Edward was a committed Protestant and moved England further towards Protestantism. He died young at the age of 15.

Mary I (reigned 1553–1558) — Henry's daughter by Catherine of Aragon. Mary was a devout Roman Catholic who reversed the Reformation, restoring Papal authority in England. She had nearly 300 Protestants burned at the stake, earning her the nickname "Bloody Mary".

Elizabeth I (reigned 1558–1603) — Henry's daughter by Anne Boleyn. Elizabeth restored Protestantism and the Church of England as the established church. Her long reign is regarded as a golden age for England, known as the Elizabethan era, celebrated for:

• Exploration — figures such as Sir Francis Drake, the first Englishman to circumnavigate the globe (1577–1580)
• Theatre and the arts — the playwright William Shakespeare wrote during this period
• The defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 — Spain sent a large fleet to invade England; the English navy, assisted by storms, defeated it decisively

Elizabeth I never married and had no children, earning her the name "The Virgin Queen". On her death in 1603, the Tudor dynasty ended.

Elizabeth I was succeeded by James VI of Scotland, who became James I of England in 1603 — uniting the crowns of England and Scotland under one monarch for the first time. This is known as the Union of the Crowns.

Under James I:

• The King James Bible was produced in 1611 — a new English translation of the Bible commissioned by the king, which had an enormous influence on the English language and literature
• The Gunpowder Plot of 1605 — a group of Catholic conspirators, led by Robert Catesby and including Guy Fawkes, plotted to blow up the Houses of Parliament on the State Opening. The plot was discovered before it could be carried out; the conspirators were arrested and executed. The event is still commemorated on 5 November each year with bonfires and fireworks — known as Bonfire Night or Guy Fawkes Night

Charles I (reigned 1625–1649) believed in the Divine Right of Kings — the idea that a king's authority came directly from God and could not be challenged. His conflicts with Parliament over taxation and religious policy led to the English Civil War (1642–1651).

The war was fought between:

• The Royalists (supporters of the King) — sometimes called Cavaliers
• The Parliamentarians (supporters of Parliament) — sometimes called Roundheads, led by Oliver Cromwell

Parliament won the Civil War. Charles I was put on trial and executed on 30 January 1649 — the only time in British history that a reigning monarch was put to death. After the execution, England was declared a Commonwealth — a republic governed without a king.

Oliver Cromwell became the dominant figure in England after the Civil War, eventually taking the title Lord Protector in 1653. He ruled England until his death in 1658.

Cromwell's rule was strict — theatres were closed, and many aspects of public life were governed by Puritan religious values. After his death, his son Richard briefly took over but was unable to maintain control.

In 1660, Parliament invited Charles II — son of the executed king — to return from exile and take the throne. This event is known as the Restoration.

The reign of Charles II saw the founding of the Royal Society in 1660, which promoted scientific inquiry. Notable scientists of the era include Sir Isaac Newton, who formulated the laws of gravity and motion.

Charles II died in 1685 and was succeeded by his Catholic brother, James II, whose religious policies alarmed Protestant politicians and the public alike.

In 1688, leading politicians invited the Protestant William of Orange — ruler of the Netherlands and husband of James II's daughter Mary — to come to England and take the throne. James II fled to France without resistance. This near-bloodless transfer of power is known as the Glorious Revolution.

William III and Mary II became joint monarchs, but crucially, they agreed to govern according to the terms set out in the Bill of Rights (1689). The Bill of Rights established:

• Parliament's control over taxation — the monarch could not raise taxes without Parliament's consent
• The right to free elections for members of Parliament
• Freedom of speech in Parliament
• The monarch could not be a Roman Catholic or marry a Roman Catholic

The Bill of Rights is a cornerstone of British democracy and the constitutional monarchy.

In 1707, the Act of Union united the Kingdom of England (which already included Wales) with the Kingdom of Scotland to create the Kingdom of Great Britain. A single Parliament of Great Britain met at Westminster.

This was a pivotal moment in British history — the formation of what would eventually become the United Kingdom.

Up next: A global power — from the British Empire and the slave trade to the Industrial Revolution, explore how Britain shaped the modern world.